History:
Stone is a natural solid formation of one or many minerals. There are thousands of types of stone that have
been quarried through the centuries. Quarries are located all around the world. A majority of natural stone
comes from Italy, Spain, Turkey, United States, Mexico, China, Taiwan, India, Greece, Canada, France, and
Brazil.
The minerals in stone came from the same liquid and gas minerals that formed the earth. The Earth
developed as a massive body of gas and liquid minerals that slowly cooled and condensed to a solid
core. Through pressure, the Earth's crust began to form and heavy minerals were forced down to the core of
the Earth where they were trapped. As the crust got thicker, it squeezed around the inner core which created
intense pressure and heat from within the Earth. Crystals and other solid forms began to grow from the
mineral vapors that were being released. As the Earth's crust began to expand and erode, heat and
pressure pushed the solid minerals up to the Earth's surface which formed colossal rock beds. It took up to
one-hundred million years to form some of these beds. Many of the beds are now used as quarries where
the stone is mined.
Most of these minerals can be identified by their color, hardness, and crystal formation. Crystals come in a
variety of shapes and sizes. The wide array of these minerals are often difficult to identify. Many stones look
very similar to each other; however, they are all very different.
It is imperative to know the exact type of stone that is to be maintained. Stone is natural and may have
adverse reactions to certain cleaning chemicals and procedures. Most stones are also natural alkalis and
so are dirt and soil; therefore, stone and dirt are attracted to each other which often makes cleaning very
difficult. This makes the proper selection of cleaning procedures and chemicals for stone very complex.

NATURAL STONE HISTORY

Types of Stone:
The familiar stone types that are used today are identified through four categories: SEDIMENTARY, METAMORPHIC,
IGNEOUS STONE, and MAN-MADE.
SEDIMENTARY stone came from organic elements such as glaciers, rivers, wind, oceans, and plants. Tiny
sedimentary pieces broke off from these elements and accumulated to form rock beds. They were bonded through
millions of years of heat and pressure.
LIMESTONE: Mainly consists of calcite. It does not show much graining or crystalline
structure. It has a smooth granular surface. Varies in hardness. Some dense limestones can
be polished. Common colors are black, grey, white, yellow or brown. It is more likely to stain
than marble. Limestone is known to contain lime from sea water.
SANDSTONE: Is a very durable formation of quartz grains (sand). Usually formed in light
brown or red colors. Categorized by the most popular sandstone bonding agents such as
silica, calcium, clay, and iron oxide.
SOAPSTONE: A very soft stone made of a variety of talc. It is a dense mineral that wears
well and is often resistant to stains.
FOSSILSTONE: Considered a limestone that contains natural fossils such as sea shells and
plants.
TRAVERTINE: Usually a cream or reddish color. It is formed through the accumulation of
calcite from hot springs. It contains lots of holes that were formed from water flowing through the
stone. These holes are often filled with synthetic resins or cements. Requires lots of
maintenance if the holes are not filled. Classified as a limestone and a marble.
METAMORPHIC stone originates from a natural change from one type of stone to another type through the mixture
of heat, pressure, and minerals. The change may be a development of a crystalline formation, a texture change, or
a color change.
MARBLE: A recrystallized limestone that formed when the limestone softened from heat
and pressure and recrystallized into marble where mineral changes occurred. The main
consistency is calcium and dolomite. Ranges in many colors and is usually heavily veined
and shows lots of grains. Hardness rates from 2.5 to 5 on the MOH Scale.
Marble is classified into three categories: (Stone World)
Dolomite: If it has more than 40% magnesium carbonate.
Magnesian: If it has between 5% and 40% magnesium carbonate.
Calcite: If it has less than 5% magnesium carbonate.
SLATE: A fine grained metamorphic stone that formed from clay, sedimentary rock shale,
and sometimes quartz. Very thin and can break easily. Usually black, grey, or green.
SERPENTINE: Identified by its marks which look like the skin of a serpent. Most popular
colors are green and brown. Hardness rates from 2.5 to 4 on the MOH Scale. Contains
serpentine minerals has lots of magnesium, and has an igneous origin. Does not always
react well to recrystallization or diamond polishing.
IGNEOUS stones are mainly formed through volcanic material such as magma. Underneath the Earths surface,
liquid magma cooled and solidified. Mineral gases and liquids penetrated into the stone and created new crystalline
formations with various colors.
GRANITE: Primarily made of Quartz (35%), Feldspar (45%) and Potassium. Usually has
darker colors. Contains very little calcite, if any. Provides a heavy crystalline and granular
appearance with mineral grains. It is very hard material and easier to maintain than marble.
Yet, it is still porous and will stain. There are different types of granite depending on the
percentage mix of quartz, mica and feldspar. Black granite is known as an Anorthosite. It
contains very little quartz and feldspar and has a different composition than true granite.
MAN-MADE Stones are derived of unnatural mixtures such resin or cement with the additive of stone chips.
TERRAZZO: Marble and granite chips embedded in a cement composition.
AGGLOMERATE or CONGLOMERATE: Marble chips embedded in a colored resin
composition.
CULTURED or FAUX MARBLE: A mix of resins that are painted or mixed with a paint to
look like marble.
Italian Name:
Azzuro
Breccia
Dorato/D'oro
Fiore
Giallo
Negro/Nero
Perla/Perlato
Rosa
Rosso
Verde
Bianco
STONE NAMES
English Color:
Blue
Broken Pieces
Gold
Flower
Yellow
Black
Pearl
Pink
Red
Green
White
Example: Negro Marquina - Black limestone from Marquina, Spain
Bianco Carrara - White marble from Carrara, Italy
Currently, there are many companies around the world that use generic
names to identify different types of stone. This has created a problem for the
stone maintenance industry. The original names were in Italian. Usually the
name consists of two parts. The first part describes the color and the second
part describes the name from where the stone was quarried.
Surface Textures:
There are many different types of stone available today. When stone is ordered, it is fabricated with a particular type of surface. There are six main types of surfaces that are selected:
Honed: Provides a flat to low sheen gloss. Different levels of gloss can be selected. This
surface is very smooth, but often very porous. This texture is common in high traffic buildings.
Honed floors should always be protected with Stoneguard Penetrating Sealer because it has
wide-open pores. Honed stone colors are not as vibrant as a polished stone.
Polished: A glossy surface that wears away with time due to heavy foot traffic and using
improper maintenance procedures. This surface is very smooth and not very porous. The
reflectivity of polished crystals brings out the brilliant colors and grains of natural stone. The shine
comes from the natural reflection of the stone's crystals. The polish is provided by polishing
bricks and polishing powders that are used during fabrication. The shine is not from a coating.
Flamed: A rough surface that is developed through intense heat. During fabrication, the stone is
heated up and the crystals begin to pop, thus forming a rough surface. This surface is very
porous and must be treated with Stoneguard.
Tumbled : A slightly rough texture that is achieved by tumbling small pieces of marble,
limestone, and sometimes granite to achieve an archaic/worn appearance. It often requires an
application of Stone Color Enhancer to bring out the colors.
Sand Blasted: This surface is the result of a pressurized flow of sand and water that provides a
textured surface with a matte gloss.
Sawn: A process performed by using a gang saw.
Bush Hammered: A pounding action that develops a textured surface. The degree of
roughness can be selected.
Reflectivity of Stone:
Stone contains natural crystals. These crystals reflect light to provide a shine on the
surface. When the crystals are dull, crushed, or broken, they cannot reflect light evenly.
For example, when the lens of a flashlight breaks, it cannot reflect the light that is being
emitted from the bulb.
Polished stone floors become dull when heavy foot traffic along with sediment erodes
the crystals. Normal footwear does not cause the main damage, sediment and grit do.
The sediment and grit that lies on the stone surface is the main enemy of the stones
crystals. The damage to the crystals occur when the pressure from the shoe forces the
sediment to abrade or fracture the crystals.
Hardness of Stone:
Marble is a relatively soft stone. On a measurement of hardness (MOHS), marble is
approximately a three out of ten. Marble is made of calcium, just like your teeth. If you
eat something to hard you will break your tooth. If you eat a lot of sugar you will get a
cavity. Stone reacts the same way. If an improper chemical is applied to the surface,
corrosion will begin to form cavities in the stone.
Listed below is the famous Measurement of Hardness (MOH) Scale for stone. This is a
guide developed in the 1800's which helps evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of
the stone being used. For example, softer stones would require the use of a less active
chemical and a more frequent dust mopping program.